(1651–1660): Scotland Under Cromwellian Rule
List of Key Figures During the Third Interregnum
| Name | Position | Years of Influence | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Charles II | King of Scots (de jure) | 1649–1651 (exiled until 1660) | Crowned in Scotland in 1651; fled after defeat at Worcester |
| Oliver Cromwell | Lord Protector of the Commonwealth | 1653–1658 | Military ruler of Scotland; imposed direct English rule |
| Richard Cromwell | Lord Protector of the Commonwealth | 1658–1659 | Oliver’s son; lacked political support and resigned in 1659 |
| George Monck | Governor of Scotland; Military Commander | 1654–1660 | Held military control over Scotland during the Interregnum |
| Scottish Parliament | Suspended | 1651–1660 | Parliament was dissolved under Cromwellian rule |
| Council of State | Ruling body of the English Commonwealth | 1651–1660 | Controlled Scottish affairs from London |
Introduction
The Third Interregnum (1651–1660) was one of the most disruptive and transformative periods in Scottish history — a decade when Scotland ceased to exist as an independent kingdom and was absorbed into the English Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. Following the defeat of Charles II at the Battle of Worcester in 1651, Scotland was militarily occupied and politically reorganized as part of a republican British state.
During this period, Scotland was not merely a defeated nation — it was a land under foreign occupation, governed by English officials and garrisoned by English soldiers. The Scottish Parliament was dissolved, and Scottish representation in government was transferred to London under Cromwell’s Council of State.
Yet, the Interregnum was not a time of complete submission. Scottish resistance remained strong, particularly among the Highland clans and the Covenanters. Moreover, the strict Puritan religious and political policies imposed by the English Commonwealth created deep resentment within Scottish society.
Historian Michael Lynch described the period as “an unnatural stillness — a time when Scotland’s political heartbeat seemed to stop, only to return with ferocious intensity upon the Restoration.” The Interregnum, though brief, left an indelible mark on Scottish history, influencing the political and religious trajectory of the kingdom well into the 18th century.
Background: The Defeat of Charles II and the Collapse of the Monarchy
The Third Interregnum was born out of the turmoil of the English Civil War and the broader conflicts between the Crown and Parliament that had defined the British Isles since the 1630s.
After the execution of Charles I in 1649, Scotland initially recognized his son, Charles II, as the rightful king of Scotland. Charles II was crowned at Scone in 1651 — an event that underscored Scotland’s rejection of the English Commonwealth and its commitment to the Stuart monarchy.
However, Charles II’s attempt to reclaim the English throne ended in disaster at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. His army was crushed by Oliver Cromwell’s forces, and Charles fled into exile in France.
With the Stuart cause defeated and Charles II in exile, Scotland was left leaderless and vulnerable. Cromwell, sensing the opportunity to extend English domination over Scotland, launched a military campaign to impose direct rule.
The Cromwellian Conquest of Scotland (1651–1652)
Oliver Cromwell’s conquest of Scotland was swift and brutal. Following the victory at Worcester, Cromwell’s forces rapidly occupied key Scottish cities and strongholds:
- Edinburgh fell in December 1651.
- Dundee was sacked in September 1651, with over 2,000 inhabitants killed.
- Stirling and Perth were taken shortly afterward.
Cromwell installed a network of English garrisons across Scotland, including Edinburgh Castle, Stirling Castle, and Aberdeen. Military occupation was reinforced by the construction of citadels at Leith, Inverness, and Ayr.
The level of military control imposed on Scotland was unprecedented. Historian David Stevenson observed:
“The Cromwellian occupation of Scotland was the most complete military domination ever imposed on the Scottish kingdom — an iron grip enforced by cannon and musket.”
By early 1652, all meaningful Scottish resistance had been crushed. The Stuart cause was in exile, and Scotland had been reduced to a province of the English Commonwealth.
The Incorporation of Scotland into the Commonwealth (1652–1653)
With military control established, Cromwell sought to integrate Scotland politically into the English state. In April 1652, the Scottish Parliament was formally dissolved, and Scotland was incorporated into the English Commonwealth under the terms of the Tender of Union.
The terms of the incorporation were clear:
- Scotland was to have 30 seats in the English Parliament.
- Scottish representatives would be elected according to English voting procedures.
- The Kirk (the Scottish Church) was to be subordinated to the English state’s Puritan religious policies.
- Scotland’s judicial system was to be placed under the oversight of English officials.
For the first time since its founding, Scotland ceased to exist as an independent kingdom.
The new political arrangement was deeply unpopular in Scotland. The Puritan reforms imposed on the Kirk, including the suppression of episcopacy and the outlawing of certain Presbyterian practices, alienated large segments of the Scottish population.
Military Rule and Resistance (1653–1658)
To enforce order, Cromwell installed a series of military governors, including General George Monck, who ruled Scotland from 1654 to 1660 with near-absolute authority.
Monck established a network of military garrisons, fortified towns, and road systems to facilitate rapid deployment of troops in case of rebellion. His administration was marked by ruthless efficiency:
- Taxes were imposed directly by English officials.
- Scottish nobles who had supported the Royalist cause were fined and had their estates confiscated.
- Religious dissent was suppressed by military tribunals.
Despite Monck’s military dominance, resistance continued in the Highlands. Clans loyal to the Stuart cause, including the MacDonalds and the Camerons, engaged in guerrilla warfare against the occupying English forces.
The Covenanters — hardline Presbyterians — also resisted Cromwell’s religious policies, leading to small-scale skirmishes and local uprisings.
The Death of Cromwell and the Collapse of the Commonwealth (1658–1660)
Oliver Cromwell’s death in 1658 created a power vacuum within the English Commonwealth. His son, Richard Cromwell, succeeded him as Lord Protector but lacked his father’s authority and political skills.
Richard’s position quickly collapsed. By 1659, the English army was divided, and political control in London disintegrated.
Sensing the opportunity, George Monck marched his army south from Scotland to London in 1660. In an act of political genius, Monck negotiated the restoration of Charles II to the throne — ending the Commonwealth and the Third Interregnum.
The Restoration of Charles II (1660)
On 29 May 1660, Charles II entered London to cheering crowds. The monarchy was restored, and the House of Stuart reclaimed the Scottish and English thrones.
The Restoration marked the end of direct English rule over Scotland. The Scottish Parliament was reconvened, and the Kirk was re-established under a Presbyterian system.
Historian Jenny Wormald summarized the Restoration as:
“Not simply the return of a king — but the reawakening of Scotland’s national consciousness after a decade of enforced silence.”
Legacy of the Third Interregnum
The Third Interregnum left a deep scar on Scotland:
- The abolition of Scottish independence marked a fundamental shift in Anglo-Scottish relations.
- Cromwell’s harsh military occupation deepened resentment toward English authority.
- The political and religious fractures created during the Interregnum would resurface in future conflicts, including the Jacobite uprisings.
Conclusion
The Third Interregnum was Scotland’s most profound political humiliation — a decade when the kingdom ceased to exist as a separate state. But the resistance and resilience forged during this period would lay the foundation for Scotland’s political resurgence under the restored Stuart monarchy.
References
- Stevenson, David. (1980). Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Scotland, 1644–1651.
- Lynch, Michael. (1992). Scotland: A New History.
- Wormald, Jenny. (1991). Court, Kirk, and Community.
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