(1290–1292): Scotland’s Crisis of Succession and the Rise of Edward I’s Influence
List of Key Figures and Guardians During the First Interregnum
| Name | Position | Years of Influence | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Margaret, Maid of Norway | Queen of Scots | 1286–1290 | Died en route to Scotland, sparking the succession crisis |
| Guardians of Scotland | Regents | 1286–1292 | Six nobles appointed to govern Scotland during Margaret’s minority |
| Edward I of England | King of England | 1272–1307 | Intervened in the Scottish succession crisis |
| John Balliol | Claimant to the throne | 1292 | Chosen as king by Edward I |
| Robert the Bruce (the Competitor) | Claimant to the throne | 1292 | Grandfather of Robert the Bruce, argued for his hereditary right |
| Florence, Count of Holland | Foreign claimant | 1291–1292 | Presented a claim based on distant lineage |
| Eric II of Norway | Margaret’s father | 1286–1290 | Sought to influence the succession process |
The First Interregnum of Scotland (1290–1292) was a period of profound political instability, dynastic chaos, and foreign interference. It began with the death of Margaret, Maid of Norway in 1290, the last direct heir of the House of Dunkeld. Margaret’s untimely death not only extinguished the immediate royal line but also left Scotland without a clear successor, plunging the kingdom into a fierce and complex struggle for the throne.
The succession crisis attracted the attention of Edward I of England (“Longshanks”), whose calculated intervention in Scottish affairs would ultimately lead to the subjugation of Scotland and the Wars of Scottish Independence. The First Interregnum was not just a political vacuum — it was a moment when the very sovereignty of Scotland was placed in jeopardy.
Historian G.W.S. Barrow described the period as “a dangerous crossroads in Scottish history — a moment when the absence of a single ruler left Scotland vulnerable to both internal division and external aggression.” The decisions made during these two years would shape the future of Scotland and define the course of Anglo-Scottish relations for the next century.
Background: The Death of Alexander III and the Crisis of Succession
The roots of the First Interregnum lay in the death of Alexander III in 1286. Alexander’s reign had been one of comparative peace and prosperity. Through strategic marriages and successful military campaigns, Alexander had strengthened Scotland’s borders and established the kingdom’s political independence.
However, Alexander’s personal life was marked by misfortune. His wife, Margaret of England, died in 1275, and his two sons and one daughter predeceased him. This left his only surviving heir, his granddaughter Margaret, Maid of Norway, as the sole legitimate claimant to the throne.
In March 1286, Alexander III was returning to Edinburgh from a council meeting when he was caught in a storm while riding along the cliffs near Kinghorn. He was thrown from his horse and killed. The sudden and unexpected death of the king left Scotland in a precarious position — a thriving kingdom with no adult heir.
Margaret’s Ascension and the Treaty of Birgham (1286–1290)
After Alexander’s death, the Scottish nobility moved swiftly to prevent a succession crisis. In 1286, they appointed six noblemen, known as the Guardians of Scotland, to govern the kingdom until Margaret could be brought from Norway and crowned queen. The Guardians represented the leading political factions within Scotland:
- William Fraser, Bishop of St. Andrews
- Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow
- John Comyn, Lord of Badenoch
- James Stewart, High Steward of Scotland
- Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan
- Duncan MacDuff, Earl of Fife
The Guardians secured a diplomatic agreement with Norway and England to protect Scotland’s independence while recognizing Margaret as the rightful queen. This resulted in the Treaty of Birgham (1290), which proposed that Margaret would marry Edward of Caernarfon (the future Edward II of England). The treaty stipulated that:
- Scotland would remain politically independent.
- Scottish laws and customs would be preserved.
- No foreign officials would be permitted to govern Scotland.
The Treaty of Birgham was a diplomatic triumph — it protected Scotland’s autonomy while forging an alliance with England. Historian Michael Prestwich described the treaty as “an extraordinary exercise in medieval statecraft — balancing dynastic ambition with national sovereignty.”
However, Margaret never lived to fulfill this agreement.
Margaret’s Death and the Collapse of Political Order (1290)
In September 1290, Margaret set sail from Norway to Scotland to assume the throne. However, the ship was caught in a storm, and Margaret fell gravely ill. She was forced to land in the Orkney Islands, where she died at the age of seven.
Margaret’s death ended the direct line of the House of Dunkeld and plunged Scotland into a constitutional crisis. The Treaty of Birgham became void, and the Scottish nobility — already divided by factional rivalries — now faced the impossible task of choosing a new monarch from a field of rival claimants.
The Great Cause (1291–1292): Edward I’s Intervention
The lack of a clear heir prompted thirteen nobles to put forward their claims to the throne. The most powerful contenders were:
- John Balliol – Grandson of Margaret, daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon (Alexander III’s younger brother).
- Robert the Bruce – Grandson of Isabel, daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon (John Balliol’s aunt).
- Florence, Count of Holland – Distantly related to the Scottish royal line through marriage.
- John Hastings – Son of Ada, sister of David, Earl of Huntingdon.
Faced with internal deadlock, the Guardians turned to Edward I of England for arbitration — a catastrophic mistake. Edward agreed to oversee the process but only on the condition that he be recognized as Scotland’s feudal overlord.
Desperate to prevent civil war, the Guardians conceded. Edward summoned the Scottish nobility to Norham Castle in May 1291, where they reluctantly acknowledged his overlordship. Historian Michael Lynch described this moment as “the beginning of Scotland’s descent into vassalage.”
Edward carefully manipulated the succession process, ensuring that his preferred candidate — John Balliol — was installed as king. In November 1292, Edward declared Balliol the rightful heir and crowned him King of Scotland at Scone.
Outcome and Legacy
The First Interregnum ended with John Balliol’s coronation — but it left Scotland politically fractured and diplomatically weakened. Balliol’s reign was short-lived and disastrous. Edward I’s domination over Scottish affairs became clear when he forced Balliol to provide military support in England’s war with France. When Balliol resisted, Edward invaded Scotland in 1296, beginning the Wars of Scottish Independence.
The First Interregnum revealed the vulnerability of Scotland’s monarchy and political institutions. Without a clear succession plan and faced with English interference, Scotland’s independence was temporarily lost. But it also marked the beginning of a new chapter — the rise of William Wallace and Robert the Bruce would emerge as direct responses to the political humiliation of the First Interregnum.
As historian G.W.S. Barrow observed:
“The death of the Maid of Norway was more than the death of a child — it was the death of Scotland’s political innocence.”
Legacy
The First Interregnum was more than a constitutional crisis — it was a political turning point that ended Scotland’s independence and set the stage for over a century of conflict. Edward I’s calculated intervention transformed Scotland from an independent kingdom into a vassal state, triggering the wars that would define Scotland’s medieval history.
References
- Barrow, G.W.S. (1981). Kingship and Unity: Scotland 1000–1306.
- Lynch, Michael. (1992). Scotland: A New History.
- Prestwich, Michael. (1988). Edward I.
- Duncan, A.A.M. (1975). The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292.