The Battle of Culloden (1746): The Last Jacobite Rebellion and the End of Highland Scotland
The Battle of Culloden, fought on 16 April 1746, was the final and decisive confrontation of the Jacobite Rising of 1745—a political and military struggle that sought to restore the exiled Stuart dynasty to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The battle marked the end of the Jacobite cause and the last pitched battle fought on British soil. In less than an hour, the British government forces, commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, crushed the Jacobite army led by Charles Edward Stuart—better known as Bonnie Prince Charlie. The brutal suppression of the Highland clans that followed Culloden effectively destroyed the centuries-old Highland way of life and reinforced the dominance of the Hanoverian monarchy. Historian John Prebble aptly described Culloden as “the last gasp of feudal Scotland, the moment when the sword and the claymore finally yielded to musket and bayonet” (Prebble, 1961). The events leading up to the battle, the tactical and strategic decisions made on the field, and the political and cultural aftermath shaped the future of Scotland and the British Isles for centuries to come.
Political Background and the Jacobite Cause
The Battle of Culloden was the culmination of the Jacobite movement—a series of attempts to restore the Stuart dynasty to the British throne following the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689. The Glorious Revolution had overthrown James VII and II (James II of England and James VII of Scotland) in favor of his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband, William of Orange. James, a Catholic, had alienated the predominantly Protestant political elite with his attempts to impose religious toleration for Catholics and his perceived authoritarianism. His flight to France and the accession of William and Mary established a constitutional monarchy in which parliamentary authority was firmly established.
The Stuart line’s Catholicism and its perceived ties to France became politically untenable in a country where Protestantism had become a defining political and religious identity. After James VII’s death in 1701, his son James Francis Edward Stuart (the “Old Pretender”) became the focal point of Jacobite efforts to reclaim the throne. French support for the Jacobites was based on geopolitical calculation rather than ideological alignment. France sought to destabilize Britain and weaken its growing influence in European affairs by supporting the restoration of a Catholic Stuart monarchy.
The first significant Jacobite challenge came in the Jacobite Rising of 1715, when James Francis Edward Stuart attempted to rally support in Scotland and northern England. The rebellion, however, was poorly coordinated and ultimately crushed at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. A second rising in 1719, supported by Spanish forces, also ended in failure at the Battle of Glen Shiel. By the 1740s, the Jacobite cause appeared to be politically and militarily exhausted.
However, the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) revived the Jacobite movement. France sought to divert British resources from the European continent by sponsoring another Jacobite uprising. In 1745, Charles Edward Stuart (the “Young Pretender”) landed in Scotland with a small force of French-supplied troops, hoping to rally Highland clans and Catholic supporters in the Lowlands and England to his cause. Charles, the grandson of James VII, was a charismatic figure whose personal charm and unwavering belief in the legitimacy of the Stuart claim inspired many Highland clans to rise in rebellion. His arrival marked the beginning of the ’45 Rising—the most serious Jacobite challenge to Hanoverian rule since the Glorious Revolution.
The Jacobite Rising of 1745
Charles Edward Stuart’s campaign began with remarkable success. After landing on the island of Eriskay in the Hebrides in July 1745, Charles quickly secured the support of key Highland clans, including the MacDonalds, Camerons, and MacLeans. On 19 August 1745, Charles raised the Stuart standard at Glenfinnan, formally declaring his intention to reclaim the British throne.
The Jacobite army advanced south, capturing Edinburgh without resistance on 17 September. On 21 September, Charles’s forces achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Prestonpans, where the Highland charge overwhelmed a government force under Sir John Cope. The ease with which the Jacobites secured Scotland emboldened Charles to push into England, despite opposition from his senior commanders. In November 1745, the Jacobite army marched south into England, capturing Carlisle and reaching as far as Derby—just 120 miles from London.
At Derby, the Jacobite campaign faltered. Charles’s commanders, including Lord George Murray, advised retreat due to the lack of support from English Jacobites and the absence of a promised French invasion. Reluctantly, Charles ordered a retreat to Scotland. The withdrawal sapped Jacobite momentum and allowed British government forces to regroup under the command of William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the younger son of George II.
The Jacobites won another victory at the Battle of Falkirk in January 1746, but internal divisions and logistical failures weakened the campaign. Cumberland’s forces pursued the Jacobites north into the Scottish Highlands, where Charles’s army prepared for a final confrontation on the bleak moorland of Culloden.
The Battle of Culloden (16 April 1746)
The Jacobite army arrived at Culloden Moor, near Inverness, on 15 April 1746. Charles’s army was exhausted and poorly supplied. Many of his Highland troops had gone without food for two days, and attempts to surprise Cumberland’s camp in a night attack failed due to poor coordination and miscommunication.
On the morning of 16 April, the Jacobite army—numbering about 5,000—faced Cumberland’s government forces of approximately 9,000. Cumberland’s forces were well-rested, better equipped, and supported by artillery and cavalry. The government army formed in two lines, with regiments from England, Scotland, and the Lowlands.
The battle began with an artillery exchange. The government artillery inflicted heavy casualties on the Jacobite ranks. Charles ordered a Highland charge—his army’s most effective tactic—but Cumberland had prepared for this. His troops formed hollow squares, using bayonets to counter the charge. The Highlanders, advancing across boggy ground under heavy fire, were slaughtered in minutes. Within 30 minutes, the Jacobite line collapsed.
Jacobite casualties were staggering: over 1,500 killed and 1,000 wounded. In contrast, government losses were fewer than 300. Charles fled the battlefield and was eventually forced into hiding. He spent five months evading government forces before escaping to France.
Aftermath and Consequences
Culloden was not merely a military defeat—it was the death knell for Highland society and the Jacobite cause. In the aftermath of the battle, Cumberland’s forces conducted brutal reprisals against the Highland clans. Known as the “Pacification of the Highlands,” this campaign involved the execution of prisoners, the destruction of clan settlements, and the confiscation of estates. The wearing of Highland dress and the playing of bagpipes were banned under the Dress Act of 1746. The clan system, which had defined Highland society for centuries, was effectively dismantled.
The failure of the ’45 Rising ended any realistic hope of a Stuart restoration. Charles Edward Stuart lived the rest of his life in exile, dying in Rome in 1788. The Hanoverian monarchy, secured by the defeat at Culloden, would dominate British political life for the next century.
The political and cultural consequences of Culloden were profound. The British government imposed direct military rule in the Highlands, building roads and forts to prevent further rebellions. Highland culture was systematically suppressed. Historian Christopher Duffy describes Culloden as “a watershed moment in British history—a battle whose consequences reverberated far beyond the battlefield” (Duffy, 2003).
References
- Prebble, John. (1961). Culloden. Secker & Warburg.
- Duffy, Christopher. (2003). The ’45: Bonnie Prince Charlie and the Untold Story of the Jacobite Rising. Cassell.
- Pittock, Murray. (2016). Culloden: Great Battles. Oxford University Press.
- Reid, Stuart. (2012). Culloden Moor 1746: The Death of the Jacobite Cause. Osprey.
- Blaikie, Walter B. (1916). The Battle of Culloden. Edinburgh University Press.