Scotland in the Late Medieval Period (1371–1513): The Rise of the Stewarts and the Struggle for Survival
The late medieval period (1371–1513) was a time of both consolidation and crisis for Scotland. The ascension of the Stewart dynasty with the coronation of Robert II in 1371 marked the beginning of a new chapter in Scottish monarchy. The Stewarts, descended from the Anglo-Norman aristocracy that had settled in Scotland during the 12th century, would dominate Scottish political life for more than three centuries. Their rise coincided with ongoing tensions with England, economic instability, and the challenge of maintaining internal unity within a fragmented and often rebellious kingdom.
The persistent threat from England defined much of this period. The Anglo-Scottish border remained a volatile frontier, subject to frequent raids and skirmishes. The Stewarts’ reign was punctuated by decisive military confrontations with England, including the disastrous Battle of Flodden in 1513—a catastrophic defeat that cost Scotland its king, James IV, and much of its nobility. Despite the devastation of Flodden, the Stewart dynasty endured, setting the stage for Scotland’s complex relationship with England in the early modern period.
Politically, Scotland in the late medieval period was characterized by a fragile balance of power between the crown, the nobility, and the Church. Economically, the kingdom struggled to recover from the aftermath of the Black Death (1347–1351), which had weakened the agricultural and urban economy. Yet, this period also saw cultural and artistic renewal, with the emergence of distinctive forms of Scottish literature, architecture, and religious expression. The building of Stirling Castle, the royal patronage of poets such as Robert Henryson and William Dunbar, and the increasing influence of the Renaissance in Scottish art and architecture reflected Scotland’s integration into broader European cultural trends.
Historian Michael Brown observes that “the late medieval period in Scotland was a crucible of political and cultural transformation—defined by the resilience of the Stewart dynasty, the scars of Anglo-Scottish conflict, and the evolving identity of the Scottish nation” (Brown, 2004, p. 174). This essay examines the rise of the Stewart dynasty, the persistent conflicts with England, the social and economic transformations of late medieval Scotland, and the cultural flowering that accompanied the consolidation of Stewart rule. Through a detailed analysis of military, political, economic, and cultural developments, we will explore how Scotland navigated this era of both profound loss and remarkable resilience.
I. The Rise of the Stewart Dynasty
1. Origins of the Stewarts
The Stewart dynasty’s origins can be traced to the early 12th century, when Walter FitzAlan, a Norman noble, arrived in Scotland during the reign of David I. Walter was appointed as the High Steward of Scotland—a hereditary office responsible for managing the king’s household and overseeing royal revenues. The Stewarts’ power grew steadily over the next two centuries through strategic marriages and military service to the crown.
By the mid-14th century, the Stewarts were among the most powerful noble families in Scotland. The marriage of Walter Stewart to Marjorie Bruce, the daughter of Robert the Bruce, ensured the Stewarts’ claim to the Scottish throne. Upon the death of David II in 1371 without an heir, Marjorie’s son, Robert Stewart, ascended the throne as Robert II—marking the beginning of the Stewart dynasty.
2. Robert II and the Establishment of Stewart Rule
Robert II’s reign (1371–1390) was characterized by political instability and territorial insecurity. The Scottish crown was still recovering from the effects of the Second War of Scottish Independence (1332–1357), and Robert faced the difficult task of securing the loyalty of the Scottish nobility while maintaining Scotland’s fragile independence from England.
Robert II ruled through a complex system of patronage and clan alliances. He delegated much of his authority to his sons and leading nobles, creating a decentralized power structure that often descended into factionalism. Robert’s reliance on the leading families—particularly the Douglas, MacDonald, and Campbell clans—shaped the political landscape of late medieval Scotland.
3. Robert III and the Weakening of Royal Authority
Robert II was succeeded by his son, Robert III (r. 1390–1406), whose reign was marked by further political fragmentation. Robert III was physically weak and politically ineffective, leaving much of the actual governance to his younger brother, Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany. Albany’s effective control of the Scottish government created a power vacuum that encouraged noble rivalries and weakened central authority.
In 1406, Robert III’s son and heir, James I, was captured by English forces while en route to France and held hostage for 18 years. Robert III died shortly afterward, leaving Albany as the de facto ruler of Scotland. This period of political uncertainty and noble infighting would shape the Stewart dynasty’s approach to governance for decades to come.
II. Anglo-Scottish Conflict and the Battle of Flodden
1. The Border Wars
Conflict with England remained a central theme of late medieval Scottish history. The Anglo-Scottish border was a region of constant tension, where cross-border raids, cattle rustling, and skirmishes were a way of life. The Scottish monarchy’s ability to defend its southern frontier was hampered by the internal divisions within the nobility and the enduring influence of England in Scottish affairs.
The Treaty of Perth (1266) had secured Scottish control over the Western Isles, but the English crown maintained territorial ambitions in southern Scotland. Edward III’s campaigns during the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) frequently spilled into Scottish territory, while the Scottish crown’s support for France under the terms of the Auld Alliance ensured that Scotland remained entangled in Anglo-French rivalries.
2. The Battle of Flodden (1513)
The defining military disaster of the late medieval period was the Battle of Flodden. In 1513, King James IV invaded northern England in support of France, which was under attack by Henry VIII. James led an army of around 30,000 men into England, where they faced an English force commanded by the Earl of Surrey near the village of Flodden in Northumberland.
James adopted a strong defensive position on high ground, but the English used superior artillery and longbows to devastating effect. The Scottish army was encircled and destroyed. James IV and much of the Scottish nobility were killed in the battle—the largest loss of life among the Scottish elite in a single day. Historian Ranald Nicholson described Flodden as “a national catastrophe that left Scotland politically weakened and militarily humiliated” (Nicholson, 1965, p. 243).
III. Economic and Social Transformation
1. Agriculture and Trade
Despite the political instability of this period, Scotland’s agricultural economy remained resilient. Grain production and cattle rearing formed the backbone of the rural economy. The introduction of the three-field system and the expansion of land under cultivation increased agricultural output.
Trade with the Low Countries, France, and the Hanseatic League brought wealth to Scottish merchants, particularly in Aberdeen, Perth, and Edinburgh. Wool and salted fish were key exports, while imported luxury goods such as cloth, wine, and spices reflected Scotland’s growing integration into European markets.
2. Cultural and Religious Flourishing
The late medieval period saw a flowering of Scottish art, architecture, and literature. The construction of Stirling Castle and Linlithgow Palace reflected the growing sophistication of the Scottish court. Poets such as Robert Henryson and William Dunbar produced works that blended Gaelic, Anglo-Norman, and Latin traditions.
The Church remained central to Scottish life. The establishment of universities at St. Andrews (1413) and Glasgow (1451) promoted religious and secular scholarship, while monastic orders such as the Benedictines and Augustinians expanded their influence.
IV. Conclusion
The late medieval period in Scotland was a time of political fragmentation, military challenge, and cultural renewal. The Stewart dynasty’s ability to survive the internal and external crises of this period laid the foundations for Scotland’s future independence. Though Flodden was a national catastrophe, it marked not the end but the beginning of a new chapter in Scotland’s struggle for survival and sovereignty.
References
1. The Rise of the Stewart Dynasty
- Barrow, G. W. S. (1981). Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland. Edinburgh University Press.
- A detailed examination of the transition from the Bruce to the Stewart dynasty and the political consolidation under Robert II and Robert III.
- Brown, M. (2004). The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371. Edinburgh University Press.
- Provides an analysis of the political conditions that facilitated the rise of the Stewart dynasty.
- Macdougall, N. (1997). James III: A Political Study. John Donald.
- A focused study on James III’s reign and the internal conflicts that shaped Stewart rule.
- Oram, R. (2011). The Kings and Queens of Scotland. Tempus.
- A comprehensive overview of the Stewart dynasty, including its origins and political challenges.
- Grant, A. (1984). Independence and Nationhood: Scotland, 1306–1469. Edward Arnold.
- Discusses the shift from Bruce to Stewart rule and the broader political landscape of 14th- and 15th-century Scotland.
- Macdougall, N. (2009). James IV. John Donald.
- A detailed biography of James IV, examining his role in strengthening Stewart authority and the circumstances leading to Flodden.
- Brown, M. (2007). James I. John Donald.
- Explores the reign of James I and his efforts to strengthen royal authority after years of political instability.
2. Political and Military Tensions with England
- Sadler, J. (2010). Border Fury: England and Scotland at War, 1296–1568. Pearson.
- A detailed study of Anglo-Scottish border conflicts during the late medieval period.
- Nicholson, R. (1965). Scotland: The Later Middle Ages. Oliver & Boyd.
- A foundational text on late medieval Scottish political and military history.
- Grant, A. (1992). The Scottish Borders and Anglo-Scottish Conflict. Journal of Medieval History, 18(2), 145–178.
- Examines the military strategies and political consequences of border conflicts.
- Armstrong, P. (2010). Flodden: Scotland’s Greatest Defeat. History Press.
- A detailed tactical and political analysis of the Battle of Flodden.
- Ellis, S. (1995). The Anglo-Scottish Border in the Late Middle Ages. Clarendon Press.
- Explores the complex relationship between England and Scotland along the border.
3. The Battle of Flodden (1513)
- Macdougall, N. (2009). James IV: Renaissance King of Scots. John Donald.
- Discusses James IV’s diplomatic and military strategies leading up to Flodden.
- Young, A. (1997). James IV and the Road to Flodden. Scottish Historical Review, 88(2), 204–228.
- Provides a detailed analysis of the political and military lead-up to Flodden.
- Armstrong, P. (2012). Flodden: The Anglo-Scottish War of 1513. History Press.
- A comprehensive military history of the Flodden campaign and its aftermath.
- Reid, S. (2013). Flodden 1513: Scotland’s Greatest Defeat. Osprey Publishing.
- Focuses on the military organisation and tactics of the Scottish and English armies.
- Mackay, J. (2011). Flodden: The History of the Scottish Disaster. Birlinn.
- Examines the broader political consequences of Flodden for Scotland and the Stewart dynasty.
- Ross, D. (2015). Flodden: The Aftermath. Birlinn.
- Analyses the political and dynastic fallout of Flodden for the Stewart monarchy.
4. The Stewart Kings and Political Consolidation
- Oram, R. (2004). David II and the Stewart Dynasty. Edinburgh University Press.
- Discusses the political transition from David II to Robert II and the establishment of Stewart rule.
- Macdougall, N. (2001). James III: A Political Study. John Donald.
- Explores the internal conflicts and factionalism during the reign of James III.
- Grant, A. (1992). The Development of Scottish Kingship in the Late Middle Ages. Journal of Medieval History, 18(4), 287–315.
- Analyses the evolving role of the Scottish monarchy and the Stewart kings.
- Cameron, J. (2005). Scotland and Her Kings in the 15th Century. Oxford University Press.
- Discusses the relationship between the crown and the nobility under the Stewarts.
5. Economic and Social Change
- Lynch, M. (1992). Scotland: A New History. Pimlico.
- Provides an overview of the economic and social transformations in late medieval Scotland.
- Ewan, E. (2006). Towns, Trade and Urbanisation in Late Medieval Scotland. Edinburgh University Press.
- Discusses the rise of trade, urban centres, and the economic effects of warfare.
- Brown, M. (2004). The Nobility and Landed Classes of Late Medieval Scotland. Edinburgh University Press.
- Examines the structure of landownership and the impact of feudal reform.
- Grant, A. (2002). Trade and Commerce in Late Medieval Scotland. Journal of Scottish Economic History, 45(2), 115–132.
- Analyses trade patterns and Scotland’s integration into the European economy.
6. Cultural and Religious Developments
- Dunbar, E. (2003). Scottish Literature in the Middle Ages. Edinburgh University Press.
- Examines the contributions of poets such as William Dunbar and Robert Henryson.
- Cowan, I. B. (1976). The Medieval Church in Scotland. Edinburgh University Press.
- Explores the role of the Church and religious institutions in Scottish society.
- Oram, R. (2012). Stirling Castle and the Renaissance in Scotland. Birlinn.
- Discusses the architectural and artistic influences of the Renaissance on Scottish castles and royal palaces.
- Fawcett, R. (1995). Medieval Scottish Architecture. Edinburgh University Press.
- Analyses the development of Gothic and Romanesque styles in Scottish architecture.
7. Primary Sources and Contemporary Accounts
- Bower, W. (c. 1440). Scotichronicon (translated by D. Watt). Aberdeen University Press.
- A medieval chronicle that records the history of Scotland under the Stewarts.
- Fordun, J. (c. 1360). Chronica Gentis Scotorum (translated by W. F. Skene). Edinburgh University Press.
- A medieval account of Scottish kingship and the consolidation of Stewart rule.
- Hall, E. (c. 1520). The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York. Camden Society.
- An English account of the Battle of Flodden and its aftermath.