Scotland in the Age of Union and Civil Wars (1603–1707): Political Upheaval, Religious Strife, and the Birth of Great Britain
The period between 1603 and 1707 was one of profound transformation for Scotland. In the span of just over a century, Scotland transitioned from an independent kingdom to a junior partner in a newly created political entity: the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The personal union of the crowns under James VI of Scotland (as James I of England) in 1603 marked the beginning of this transformative era. Scotland’s monarch now ruled over both Scotland and England, initiating a complex and often fraught political relationship between the two nations.
Religious conflict became the defining feature of this period. The rise of the Covenanters in the 1630s reflected a deep resistance to the imposition of Anglican religious practices on Scotland’s Presbyterian Church. Scotland played a pivotal role in the English Civil War (1642–1651), first supporting and then opposing the Stuart monarchy. The occupation of Scotland by Oliver Cromwell’s forces in the 1650s exposed Scotland to English military dominance and political interference.
The Glorious Revolution of 1688 ended Catholic rule under James VII (James II of England) and solidified Protestant hegemony in Britain. However, Scotland’s constitutional status remained unresolved until the Act of Union in 1707, which formally merged the Scottish and English parliaments and created the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Union was economically motivated, but it also reflected the growing strategic interdependence of the two nations.
Historian Michael Lynch describes this period as “a century of deep instability in Scottish political and religious life—a time when Scotland’s identity as a nation was challenged, reshaped, and ultimately redefined within the context of British statehood” (Lynch, 1992, p. 289). This essay explores the key political, military, religious, and cultural developments of this period, including the personal union under James VI, the rise of the Covenanters, the impact of the English Civil War, the Cromwellian occupation, and the eventual political union of Scotland and England.
I. The Union of the Crowns (1603)
1. The Personal Union of James VI and James I
On March 24, 1603, Elizabeth I of England died without an heir. The closest legitimate successor was James VI of Scotland, the great-grandson of Henry VII of England through his mother, Mary, Queen of Scots. James’s accession to the English throne as James I created the Union of the Crowns—a personal union that united the monarchies of Scotland and England under a single ruler, but retained distinct legal systems, parliaments, and national churches.
James VI’s move to London marked a symbolic shift in Scottish political life. Although Scotland retained its political independence, James’s decision to govern from England led to the weakening of the Scottish court and the growing influence of English political and religious institutions. James was deeply influenced by the English system of governance and sought to impose Anglican religious practices on the more rigidly Presbyterian Scottish Kirk.
James’s policy of religious unification created tensions with the Scottish nobility and clergy, who resisted perceived attempts to impose English-style episcopacy (rule by bishops) on Scotland’s Presbyterian church structure. The tension over religious governance would grow under James’s son and successor, Charles I.
II. The Rise of the Covenanters and Religious Conflict
1. Charles I and Religious Imposition
When Charles I succeeded James in 1625, he sought to impose uniformity of religious practice across his kingdoms. In 1637, Charles introduced the Book of Common Prayer in Scotland, modelled on the Anglican liturgy used in England. The imposition of this liturgy was met with outrage in Scotland.
The resistance crystallized in 1638 with the signing of the National Covenant—a document in which Scottish nobles, clergy, and commoners pledged to defend Scotland’s Presbyterian church and resist religious innovations imposed by the crown. The signatories, known as the Covenanters, emerged as a powerful political and religious movement, directly challenging the authority of the Stuart monarchy.
2. The Bishops’ Wars (1639–1640)
The signing of the Covenant led to the Bishops’ Wars—a series of armed conflicts between the Covenanters and Charles I’s forces. The Covenanters’ victory in the first Bishops’ War (1639) forced Charles to recall the English Parliament to secure funding for further military action. This decision ultimately set in motion the events leading to the English Civil War.
III. Scotland and the English Civil War (1642–1651)
1. Scottish Intervention in the Civil War
When the English Civil War erupted in 1642 between the Royalists (supporters of Charles I) and the Parliamentarians (led by Oliver Cromwell), Scotland initially aligned itself with the English Parliamentarians. The Scottish Covenanters viewed the conflict as a struggle to preserve Protestantism and limit royal authority.
In 1643, the Scots signed the Solemn League and Covenant with the English Parliament, pledging military support in exchange for the establishment of Presbyterianism in England. Scottish forces played a decisive role in several key battles, including the Battle of Marston Moor (1644).
2. The Execution of Charles I and Scottish Support for Charles II
The execution of Charles I in 1649 shocked Scotland. The Covenanters, who had fought to limit the king’s authority but not to overthrow him, shifted their allegiance to Charles II, the son of Charles I. Charles II was crowned king of Scotland at Scone in 1651 but was defeated by Cromwell’s forces at the Battle of Worcester (1651).
IV. Cromwell’s Occupation of Scotland (1650s)
Following Charles II’s defeat, Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland and imposed direct military rule. Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1652. Cromwell’s occupation brought profound political and economic disruption to Scotland. Royalist landowners were stripped of their estates, and garrisons were established to enforce English control.
Although Cromwell’s regime collapsed with his death in 1658, Scotland remained politically weakened and economically strained by the occupation.
V. The Glorious Revolution (1688)
1. James VII (James II of England) and the Catholic Crisis
James VII’s Catholic faith made him deeply unpopular in Protestant Scotland. His attempts to appoint Catholic officials and expand religious toleration for Catholics met with fierce resistance from the Presbyterian establishment.
In 1688, the birth of James’s Catholic heir triggered fears of a Catholic dynasty. The Protestant nobility invited William of Orange (husband of James’s daughter, Mary) to invade England. James was deposed, and William and Mary were declared joint monarchs in 1689.
VI. The Act of Union (1707)
1. Political and Economic Motivations
The political and economic vulnerability of Scotland following the Cromwellian occupation and the Glorious Revolution created pressure for greater political integration with England. The failure of the Darien Scheme (a Scottish colonial venture in Panama) left Scotland economically weakened and politically isolated.
In 1707, the Scottish and English parliaments ratified the Act of Union, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain. Scotland retained its legal system and Presbyterian Church, but political authority shifted to the new British Parliament in Westminster.
VII. Conclusion
The period from 1603 to 1707 was one of profound transformation for Scotland. The Union of the Crowns, the rise of the Covenanters, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution all reshaped Scotland’s political and religious identity. The Act of Union marked the culmination of these changes, creating a new political reality in which Scotland retained its cultural distinctiveness while becoming part of a larger British state.
References
1. The Union of the Crowns (1603)
- Wormald, J. (1991). The Union of the Crowns: The Making of the United Kingdom, 1603–1707. Edinburgh University Press.
- A detailed analysis of the political and dynastic factors leading to the Union of the Crowns under James VI.
- Croft, P. (2003). King James VI and the Union of the Crowns. Cambridge University Press.
- Explores the diplomatic and political consequences of James VI’s accession to the English throne.
- Goodare, J. (2004). The Scottish Court and the Union of the Crowns. Journal of British History, 39(1), 211–229.
- Examines the impact of the Union of the Crowns on Scottish governance and court politics.
- Smith, D. L. (2001). The Stuart Parliaments, 1603–1689. Oxford University Press.
- Discusses the constitutional changes following the Union of the Crowns.
- Lee, M. (1990). The Road to Revolution: Scotland and the Union of the Crowns. Edinburgh University Press.
- Provides insight into the social and political changes caused by James VI’s move to London.
2. The Rise of the Covenanters and Religious Conflict
- Donaldson, G. (1965). The Scottish Reformation. Cambridge University Press.
- Examines the religious context of the rise of the Covenanters and the challenges to Presbyterianism.
- Stevenson, D. (1973). The Scottish Revolution, 1637–1644: The Triumph of the Covenanters. David & Charles.
- A detailed analysis of the National Covenant and the political success of the Covenanters.
- Ryrie, A. (2006). The Origins of the Scottish Reformation. Manchester University Press.
- Provides a broader context for the religious conflicts that shaped the rise of the Covenanters.
- Mason, R. A. (2007). Kingship and the Covenanters: Scotland, 1637–1651. Edinburgh University Press.
- Discusses the relationship between the Stuart monarchy and the Presbyterian Kirk.
- Cowan, I. B. (1976). The Scottish Covenanters, 1637–1651. Edinburgh University Press.
- Explores the ideological and theological foundations of the Covenanter movement.
- Donaldson, G. (1974). Presbyterianism and the Politics of the National Covenant. Scottish Historical Review, 56(1), 29–56.
- Discusses the political alliances that supported the rise of the Covenanters.
3. The English Civil War and Scotland’s Role
- Scott, D. (2000). Politics and War in the Three Kingdoms, 1637–1660. Macmillan.
- Discusses Scotland’s military and political involvement in the English Civil War.
- Woolrych, A. (1990). Britain in Revolution, 1625–1660. Oxford University Press.
- A comprehensive study of the English Civil War, with significant focus on Scotland’s role.
- Stevenson, D. (1981). Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Scotland, 1644–1651. John Donald.
- Explores Scotland’s shifting alliances during the Civil War.
- Macinnes, A. I. (2007). The British Confederate: Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Edinburgh University Press.
- Examines the complex relationship between the Covenanters, Charles I, and Oliver Cromwell.
- Harris, T. (2015). Rebellion: Britain’s First Civil War. Penguin.
- A broader account of the Civil War, including the strategic importance of Scottish support.
4. Cromwell’s Occupation of Scotland (1650s)
- Firth, C. H. (1900). Scotland and the Protectorate: Letters and Papers Relating to the Military Government of Scotland from January 1654 to June 1659. Scottish History Society.
- A primary source collection of letters and administrative records from Cromwell’s military government in Scotland.
- Macinnes, A. I. (2010). Union and Empire: The Making of the United Kingdom in 1650–1707. Cambridge University Press.
- Discusses the political impact of Cromwell’s occupation on Scottish governance.
- Woolrych, A. (2002). Cromwell: Politics and Religion in the British Isles. Oxford University Press.
- Examines the motivations and outcomes of Cromwell’s occupation of Scotland.
- Stevenson, D. (1980). Cromwell and Scotland. Edinburgh University Press.
- Provides a military analysis of Cromwell’s campaigns in Scotland.
5. The Glorious Revolution (1688–1689)
- Harris, T. (2006). Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720. Penguin.
- A detailed account of the Glorious Revolution and its constitutional impact on Scotland.
- Macinnes, A. I. (2007). The Jacobite Cause and the Fall of James VII. Edinburgh University Press.
- Discusses the political and religious causes of the Glorious Revolution in Scotland.
- Pincus, S. (2009). 1688: The First Modern Revolution. Yale University Press.
- Examines the wider political and religious significance of the Glorious Revolution in Britain.
- Goodare, J. (2015). The Scottish Parliament and the Glorious Revolution. Journal of British History, 43(1), 178–201.
- Focuses on the role of the Scottish Parliament in the constitutional settlement following the Glorious Revolution.
6. The Act of Union (1707)
- Riley, P. (1978). The Union of England and Scotland. Manchester University Press.
- A foundational study on the political and economic motivations behind the Act of Union.
- Whatley, C. (2001). The Scots and the Union. Edinburgh University Press.
- A detailed exploration of the political and economic negotiations leading to the Act of Union.
- Robertson, J. (1995). Scotland and the Union of 1707. Journal of Scottish Historical Studies, 21(2), 145–178.
- Discusses the impact of the Union on Scottish political life.
- Devine, T. M. (1999). The Scottish Nation: A Modern History. Penguin.
- Discusses the economic and political consequences of the Act of Union.
- Ferguson, W. (1977). Scotland’s Relations with England Before and After the Union of 1707. Oliver & Boyd.
- Provides an analysis of Scottish public opinion on the Union.
7. Primary Sources and Contemporary Accounts
- Burnet, G. (1724). History of My Own Times. Edinburgh.
- A contemporary account of the political and religious conflicts of the 17th century.
- Baillie, R. (1640). Letters and Journals of Robert Baillie. Edinburgh.
- Firsthand accounts of the Covenanter movement and the Bishops’ Wars.
- Clarendon, E. (1702). The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Oxford University Press.
- A Royalist perspective on the Civil War and Scotland’s involvement.
- Fletcher, A. (1698). Political Works of Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun. Edinburgh.
- Discusses the Scottish constitutional crisis leading to the Act of Union.